Laura Weyand Literature Review

Andragogy Literature Review

Laura Weyand

Ball State University

Name	Commented On
Laura Weyand	Christine Rhine, Shawna Lake

Introduction

            “Andragogy is the educational term most often associated with adult learning” (Carpenter-Aeby & Aeby, 2013, p. 3).  It is impossible to study the field of adult education without considering andragogy.  The field of adult education is incredibly distinct and unique. Adults encompass a large group of learners with varied educational needs. The term andragogy is a key concept in the field of adult education. Since its early development and increase in recognition andragogy has been viewed by many as a theory, a teaching methodology, and a set of assumptions for developing instruction. Although andragogy has European origins dating back to 1833, Malcolm Knowles is credited with generating the current concept of andragogy (Merriam & Brocket, 2007). Its significance is that it distinguished the adult learner from traditional child or pre adult learners. This is detailed in how it contrasts with pedagogy.  Through his continued work Knowles shared four main assumptions of the adult learner. He later added two more assumptions. These assumptions have widely guided the practice and perspectives of adult learner characteristics and needs. Some might even argue andragogy alone distinguished the field of adult education from childhood education. Although andragogy has met with criticisms from other perspectives it continues to be widely studied and implemented as foundational practice in the field of adult education.  Within the research and literature on andragogy there are several topics which stand out. The general themes outlined in this literature review include: defining the adult learner, andragogy vs. pedagogy, assumptions of andragogy, and critiques.   

General Themes

Defining the adult learner

            For educators to be successful helping adults learn they must first have an understanding of who the adult student is. Educators must also make a point to understand the purpose behind why individual students are participating in a particular learning activity. The need for educators to maintain a robust grasp of the specificities of adults as learners is reinforced in much of the literature regarding adult learning and andragogy.  “Educators who wish to work successfully with adult learners need to understand who adult learners are and how they learn” (Merriam & Brockett, 2007, p.158). The question is how do we describe an adult learner? A number of texts and articles on adult learners offer characteristics of adults; however, it is difficult to generalize the adult learner due to the vast differences among individuals.  Holmes and Abington-Cooper (2000) point out that age is what most characterizes the adult learner from younger learners but they indicate there is danger in assuming certain behaviors on age alone. For an educator to conceptualize a working definition of what and who the adult learner is they must consider multiple definitions. These include biological, legal, social, spiritual, and moral definitions (p. 50). Considering these definitions is essential because it helps educators build a comprehensive educational framework and guides teaching practices.

Galbraith (2004) notes that perhaps due to many adult educators’ incomplete notions of adult learners there is an inadequate awareness in understanding adult learners.  However, as previously mentioned, adult students are an extremely diverse group of learners when considering their age, life roles, motivations, physical abilities, personality and experience. Due to this range of differences it is suggested that the adult education teacher must be cognizant of the characteristics of each individual learner in planning programming and practice (p. 36). Overall the general characteristics of adult learners drive the assumptions presented by Knowles within the term andragogy.   

Andragogy vs. Pedagogy

In pursuing the study of andragogy it is relevant to take a look at pedagogy. There is considerable research contrasting pedagogy and andragogy.  Before Knowles published his work on andragogy, pedagogical practices were often maintained in adult learning environments. “In the 1950’s and 1960’s, learning was defined in terms of changes in behavior” (Carpenter-Aeby & Aeby, 2013, p.3).  These were found to be unsatisfactory and often did not prove effective for adult learners (Newton, 1977, Holmes & Abington-Cooper, 2000). Because of its existence as a prevalent educational model, Ozuah implies that much of the educational system still follows the pedagogical approach (2005).  Knowles believed that there was a difference in how adults and children learn (Weingand, 1996). Pedagogy which is defined as the art and science of teaching children (Holmes & Abington-Cooper, 2000, Ozuah, 2005) has been an educational practice in schools since the 18^th and 19^th centuries (Holmes & Abington-Cooper, 2000). It is essentially a teacher centered approach to instruction which emphasizes subjects to be taught, deems the learner as dependent and does not consider learner experience in the educational setting (Ozuah, 2005).   Knowles work distinguished adult learners from child learners and in his early works he considered andragogy as the opposite of pedagogy (Merriam & Brockett, 2007). The assumptions of andragogy contrast with those of pedagogy in how educators approach the learner and the learning environment. In his later work Knowles, as explained by Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner (2007) represented pedagogy and andragogy as more of range of learning, moving from teacher-directed learning to self-directed learning. Following this idea, the situation then influences the use of pedagogical or anagogical practices. Research has revealed that a consideration of the assumptions put forth by Knowles andragogy has contributed to the development of more effective programming for adults across many content areas from technology instruction, nursing, criminal justice, and library programs. Knowles originally put forth four assumptions of the adult learner. He later added two more assumptions. These assumptions are detailed throughout much of the literature of andragogy and adult education.  

Assumptions of andragogy

            The first assumption of andragogy asserted by Knowles is that adult learners are self-directed as opposed to dependent learners. Ozuah (2005) points out that in educational settings where their autonomy is not respected, adults may become resentful and resistant to instruction. In her article A reminder about Andragogy Weingand (1996) emphasizes “Adults view themselves as capable and independent, and competent to direct and evaluate their own learning” (p. 80).  In practice, adult educators must resist dictating all the information on a topic. Instead they should facilitate activities where students have opportunities to self-evaluate and direct their own learning experiences.   

            Life experience as a resource for learning follows as the second assumption. Within an adult learning environment Weingand (1996) points out that “mistakes are viewed as opportunities for learning” (p. 80).  Also mentioned is that the experience of the adult student should be incorporated into the learning process and utilized as a resource. “To reject this life experience is equivalent to rejecting the [student] as a person and must be avoided” (Weingand, 1996, p. 80). Newton (1977) also encourages using strategies which employs a student’s contribution. Often the instructor can learn alongside the students. In contrast, Merriam & Bierema (2013) caution that there is potential where a student’s experiences can render them closed minded and unable to expand their learning. Educators must facilitate appropriate activities to foster creative and more open thinking.  In order to value adult students experience in the classroom, Ozuah ( 2005) mentions experiential techniques such as simulation exercises, problem solving activities, case methods, laboratory methods and group discussions are employed by adult educators (p. 84).

            Current social roles and their impact on an adult’s readiness to learn is put forth as the third assumption. Adults are more interested in learning what is directly relevant to their lives. In the day to day adults experience real life problems and are most concerned with learning skills they can apply to solving these problems (Ozuah, 2005). Providing students opportunities to practice and apply their skills will maintain student interest and motivation. Learning activities should be practical and realistic.

            The last of the original four assumptions presented by Knowles considers time and a focus on problem solving rather than content or subjects. Unlike children, who are learning toward the future, adults are beginning to view time as brief. Adults are looking to learn skills they can immediately apply. They are more interested in problem solving rather than subjects. Similar to the third assumption it is noted that adults are motivated to learn if it will help them perform in their social roles of life (Ozuah, 2005, Weingand, 1996).

            The fifth assumption considers motivation. Knowles indicates that intrinsic motivation is a powerful factor in driving adult learning. Although extrinsic motivators still impact learning adults are most influenced by the need for self-esteem and reaching personal goals (Ozuah, 2005, Merriam & Brockett, 2007).

            The need to know why concludes Knowles six total assumptions of adult learners. Tough (as cited by Ozuah, 2005) contended that it was most important that adult educators help the learner recognize the need to know.

Criticism

            Although andragogy is considered one of the defining contributions to the field of adult education there remains criticism regarding its definition and application. Throughout the literature there is discussion on whether or not andragogy can be considered an established theory of adult learning.  As quoted in Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner (2007), Davenport and Davenport point out the many classifications of andragogy “as a theory of adult education, a theory of adult learning, theory of technology of adult learning, method of adult education, technique of adult education, and a set of assumptions” (p. 85). Hartree (as cited in Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007) points out the lack of clarity in whether Knowles put forth a theory of learning or a theory of teaching suggesting the assumptions were possibly not a theory at all but principles of good practice (p. 85-86). Within the andragogy, pedagogy debate Mohring (as cited by Holmes & Abington-Cooper, 2000) takes issue with the root of the term andragogy. She reveals “andragogy is derived from aner, meaning adult male and not adult of either sex, therefore excluding women” (p. 52).

            Other researchers view andragogy as exclusive and restrictive of other viewpoints. Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner (2007) detail several of the criticisms of andragogy as put forth by Sandlin. These criticisms claim andragogy does not consider other ways of learning and cultures, considering all learners look the same and learn the same. They also suggest andragogy does not consider how society and the self are related which further encourages the existing societal inequalities (p. 88).

Implications

Knowles assumptions of andragogy are applicable in a variety of contexts serving adult learners.  Much of the research suggests that applying the assumptions of andragogy into practice contributes to successful learning experiences for adult learners as well as educators. Nguyen, Miranda, Lapum, & Donald  (2016) implemented the concepts of andragogy and arts based learning in nursing education. Within their study they found that overall there were enhanced learning benefits to implementing an andragogy-informed practice in nursing courses. The students participated in activities which encouraged them to draw on their previous experiences, participate in active learning activities and reflect on their learning.  In her article Becoming an adragogoical librarian Cooke (2010) concludes that due to the unique needs of adult learners, anxiety about the library and other barriers to learning, an andragogical learning model is most beneficial in designing library resources and services. Personally, the relevance and implications lie specifically in the adult classroom environment. Andragogy places emphasis and value on experiences. Our experiences impact our individual future viewpoints, our knowledge regarding particular topics, and perhaps our choices. Included in our life experience is our learning experience gathered as a child. For many this impacts their view point on learning and education.  Even for educators it can be difficult to imagine educational practices outside of those experienced as a child, namely pedagogical practices.  Considering this, as an adult learner, I have underwent several classes, work training sessions, skills development courses where the experience was unfortunately less than enjoyable or beneficial. In reflection, I think that it had to do with the methods and practices implemented.

Specifically, in respecting the principles of andragogy, the adult educator should maintain a classroom environment which is physically and socially conducive to valuing each adult and their life experience. Educators should make an effort to learn about each student personally and their reasons for participating in the learning activity. By incorporating Knowles assumptions of andragogy it positions the learner in control of their learning. The instructor should create opportunities for collaboration and conversation utilizing open ended questions. Activities such as role-playing, reading case-studies, and written reflections which require students to problem solve and apply skills must be included in practice.

Reflection

When I first began my journey in learning about adult education andragogy was a topic that was presented simultaneously with adult learning.  Having previously studied and practiced education of young adults I began to realize some of the practices I implemented contrasted with the needs of adult learners. Although perhaps not all-inclusive Knowles assumptions of andragogy were logical to me in considering adult learners. While researching this topic I was surprised and overwhelmed with the variety of studies and articles applying andragogy in different contexts. For me andragogy is unique in that despite its critics it has continued to be referenced as a foundation to adult education.   

Personally the process of completing this assignment came with great effort and self-doubt.   I began by consulting textbooks from my current and previous courses, rereading and highlighting information. I then carried out several internet library searches.  It was difficult to narrow down the literature and distinguish main the main themes I wanted to focus on. In hindsight I should have perhaps focused on a specific application of andragogy.  As I continued to research, many of the sources I chose reiterated much of the same information without offering new insights. The advice I would offer is to start research early and keep the APA manual handy.         

Table

Main themes/ideas in the literature	Application of the main idea in practice
Idea 1 Who is the adult learner?	Educators should make an effort to get to know their students and their reasons for taking the course. Games or ice breaker activities can encourage students to share about themselves.
Idea 2 Andragogy vs. Pedagogy?	Educators should tailor their course to fit the specific needs of the learners and determine which practices apply. If beginning with dependent learners gradually work toward self-directedness. Have students contribute to creating the content of the course and participate in decision making.
Idea 3 Assumptions of Andragogy	Educators need to create appropriate learning environments, consider learner motivation and experience, provide problem solving activities, and opportunities for discussion. Activities such as group discussion, role play, case studies, demonstrations rather than lecture should be included.
Idea 4 Criticism	Educators should recognize other viewpoints and limitations of andragogy. This will help them alter their practice if needed to help all adult learners learn.

References

Carpenter-Aeby, T., & Aeby, V. G. (2013). Application of Andragogy to Instruction in an MSW Practice Class. Journal Of Instructional Psychology, 40(1-4), 3-13.

Cooke, N. A. (2010). Becoming an Andragogical Librarian: Using Library Instruction as a Tool to Combat Library Anxiety and Empower Adult Learners. New Review Of Academic Librarianship, 16(2), 208-227. doi:10.1080/13614533.2010.507388

Galbraith, M. W. (2004). Adult learning methods: A guide for effective instruction (3rd ed.). Malabar, Fla: Krieger Pub. Co.

Holmes, G., & Abington-Cooper, M. (2000). Pedagogy vs. andragogy: A false dichotomy? The Journal of Technology Studies, 26(2), 50-55. doi:10.21061/jots.v26i2.a.8

Merriam, S., Caffarella, R. & Baumgartner, L. (2007).  Learning in adulthood:  A comprehensive guide. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Publishing.

Merriam, S. B., & Bierema, L. L. (2013). Adult learning : linking theory and practice. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com

Merriam, S. B., & Brockett, R. G. (2007). The profession and practice of adult education: An introduction (Updat ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Newton, E. S. (1977). Andragogy: Understanding the adult as a learner. Journal of Reading, 20(5), 361-363.

Nguyen, M., Miranda, J., Lapum, J., & Donald, F. (2016). Arts-based learning: A new approach to nursing education using andragogy. Journal of Nursing Education, 55(7), 407-410. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxy.bsu.edu/10.3928/01484834-20160615-10

Ozuah, P. O. (2005). First, There Was Pedagogy And Then Came Andragogy. Einstein Journal Of  Biology & Medicine, 21(2), 83-87.

Thompson, M. A., & Deis, M. H. (2004). Andragogy for adult learners in higher education. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 8(3), 77

Weingand, D. E. (1996). Continuing education: A reminder about andragogy. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 37(1), 79-80.