Eli Garcia Literature Review

Literature Review – Andragogy

Name	Commented On
Eli Garcia	Shawna Lake

Introduction

Over the past 50 years, due to recent advancements in technology, there has been an increase in the amount of adults enrolling in post secondary education (Bear 2010).  In an effort to meet the demands of the growing number of adults enrolling in post secondary education, the development of learning concepts such as Andragogy, self directed learning, and learning how to learn have come to the forefront of adult education (Bear 2010).  One of the mainstays that has played a significant part in the formation of adult education is Andragogy. 

            In Sang Chan’s 2010 entry in Journal of Adult Education named Applications of Andragogy in Multi-Disciplined Teaching and Learning, she defined Andragogy as “the art and science of helping adults learn (Chan 2010).”  The term Andragogy was originally coined in 1833 by Alexander Kapp.  However, the concept of Andragogy was developed into a learning theory in 1959 by Malcolm Knowles. 

            According to Malcolm Knowles, survival of our civilization requires continuous learning after the formative years (Caruth 2014).  As a result Knowles suggest continuous learning among adults must be encouraged.  Adult learning is a unique process and one of the primary goals of adult education is to provide adult learners with educational experiences in an effort to increase their desire to learn and meet their educational goals (Moore 2010).  According to Moore, in order for adult learning to be effective and rewarding, educators must provide adult learners the opportunities to develop critical thinking skills and decision making skills.  Adult learners need critical thinking skills and decision making skills in an effort to assist them in determining if the content within their educational setting addresses their educational or vocational goals.  These two skills are a significant component of adult learning and together they increase the probability of successful learning.

            According to Chan (2010), Andragogy is a well know approach to learning that is known for addressing the educational and vocational needs of adult learners.  Andragogy has developed from the need to provide adults with an alternative to the pedagogical model of education.  The development of Andragogy was part of a focus to provide the field of adult education a separation from the field of child education. In Chan’s (2010) journal entry, she makes the distinction that the pedagogical education model is based on the transmittal of knowledge and skills through specific strategies that include lectures, readings, drills, quizzes, memorization and examinations.  Pedagogy makes the role of the teacher in education the focal point and as a result the teacher decides what students should learn, how students are taught, and when the teaching and learning process will begin. Pedagogy is known as a teacher-oriented approach.   

            According to Anne Ghost Bear (2012) the Andragogy learning theory promotes a student centered environment.  These student centered environments require the individual differences of each adult learner to be identified.  Task within an androgogical setting include problem centered activities, task oriented activities, group discussions, interviews and joint goal setting sessions (Chan 2-10).  Forrest and Peterson (2006) believe that androgogical approaches play a significant role in adult education to help prepare adult learners for their working environment.  Forrest and Peterson further believe that modern current adult education requires practical implementation of skills learned, not regulation of principles.  Without implementation, adult students cannot adapt to the ever-changing workplace. Both authors stress that adult learners seeks practical knowledge that can be utilized in the workplace. By implementing andragogical methods, instructors can meet student interest by having students participate in planning the learning objectives, work based activities and solving real-world business problems. Andragogy improves communication between the student and instructor; they work together as partners to design instructional content and methods to suit the learners’ needs. As a result, the principles promote trust between the student and the instructor and enhance self-awareness in students. In the field of adult education, learners, adults hold the key to understanding learning and educators must learn how to determine what are their needs and goals (Ghost Bear 2010).  Educators need to learn how to recognize the strengths and the weaknesses of each of their students.     

            The Andragogy learning theory is based on Malcolm Knowles’ six assumptions on adult learning.  These assumptions include:

Self Concept: Adult learners are self directed and act independently.

Role of Experience: Adult learners learn by reflecting on past experiences.  These experiences serve as a valuable resource.

Readiness to Learn:  Adult learners are motivated to learn when they believe the content is relevant to his or her vocational tasks and roles.

Orientation to Learning: Adults learners learn for immediate use within their current vocation rather than for future use.

Internal Motivations: Adult learners are internally motivated.

Need to Know: Adult Learners need to know why they need to learn and what value they receive from the activities and content.

            In the androgogical educational theory, learners must participate in all aspects of learning and should be directly involved in the learning process (Caruth 2014).  The ultimate goal is for students to become self directed learners, use past experiences and play a large part in planning their own educational goals and plans. 

General Themes

According to Taylor and Kroth (2009), although Androgogy is recognized and has been used as a guide in Adult education field, it does not come without criticism.  Since the year 2000, articles and studies have been written about Andragogy.  Many of these articles focus on how Andragogy applies to teacher development.  The general criticism is that this particular educational model lacks the fundamental characteristics of a science because of its limited empirical evidence.  Andragogy is not really considered a learning theory by some experts in the field.  Some consider it more  a set of assumptions about adult learners that educators can use to create effective lessons and educational programs (Chan 2010).    Adult and children learn differently and a different approach to educating adult learners is required due to the complex nature of today’s global economy. 

Research has shown that there has been an increase of adults learners enrolled in colleges and universities, and that higher education is not doing a good job in teaching and addressing their needs (Taylor & Kroth 2009).  The literature in androgogical studies demonstrates the need to provide measurable data in an effort to support the theory and allow for Knowles’ assumptions about adult education to guide education into the future.  Taylor and Kroth reference work by Pratt written in 1993 that states that due to the lack of empirical studies, we cannot say with confidence that Andragogy has been tested and found it to be the basis for the theory of adult learning.   

Taylor and Kroth (2009) have suggested four obstacles that have impeded the ability of Andragogy to be tested to produce empirical evidence.  The first obstacle questions whether Andragogy is in fact a theory of adult education or is it just a set of good practices?  Taylor and Kroth highlight Knowles statement explaining that his theory on adult learning is more a model of assumptions about learning and that it may serve as a conceptional framework that serves as a foundation for future adult learning theories.  

Second, there are no prescribed procedures for what constitutes androgogical studies.  Among existing androgogical literature, there are no specific teaching methodologies that are discussed in depth. 

Third, In order to test the effectiveness of a lesson or content, a test must be given and grades must be utilized to the measure its effectiveness.  However, test and grades are not a necessary component on Knowles’ vision of Andragogy.  The call for no testing impedes the efforts to provide evidence of the legitimacy of the Androgogical model of adult learning. 

A fourth obstacle is the belief that the assumptions of adult learners developed by Knowles’ do not only apply to adults.    For example, some adults are dependent on the educator for direction and structure.  While some children exhibit independence and are self directed learners.  In some cases, certain children may possess a wider range of experiences than some adults.  If the characteristics between children and adults cannot be differentiated, then the assumptions are open to criticism.

Implications  

Missing in Andragogy literature is whether Andragogy is present and effective in collegiate or adult educational training instructional design.  An instrument must be created to measure whether androgogical assumptions are being incorporated in instructional settings.  In addition, finding a way to empirically measure the effects of Andragogy is important in an effort to examine and test the legitimacy of Androgogical learning theory.  The educational community is still asking if androgogy can serve as the unifying theory of adult education (Taylor and Kroth 2009).

Reflection

            Based on the articles I have read, it seems there is much research to be done in the field of adult education.  Based on some of the critics of Andragogy, a clear delineation has not been established between child and adult education.  I would tend to agree with critics stating that Malcolm Knowles’s assumptions about adult education are more suggestions to the approach of adult education.  Upon my literature review, I also noticed specific educational strategies or procedures where not prescribed.  As I envisioned what an adult educational setting would be like, I could not envision anything different that I have not had exposure to within the pedagogical model of education.  Based on the reading and Knowles concern for preparing our citizens for a competitive global economy, I feel it would be in our best interest if we would implement androgogical assumptions at the high school level and post secondary level.  Child learners, just like adult learners, would benefit from becoming self-directed learners and developing critical thinking and  decision making skills.

Table

Themes	Implication
Distinction between child and adult education.	We must provide adults with a multifaceted training that provides them with the knowledge and skills to stay competitive in the global market.
Promotion of learning centered environments	Androgogical methods should be applied to both child and adult educational setting to provided them with a more engaging and practical environment.
Is higher learning preparing adults?	Many critiques believe post secondary colleges and universities are not meeting the needs of the adult learners.
Creation of measurable instrument.	In order for Andragogy to remain relevant, it must silence its critics.

References

Caruth, Gale (2014, December). Meeting the needs of older student in higher education.           Participatory Educational Research, Vol. 1(2). Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov.

Chan, Sang (2010). Application of Ardragogy in multi-disciplined Teaching and Learning. Journal of Education, Vol. 39(2). Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov.

Forrest, S. P., III, & Peterson, T.O. It’s called andragogy. Academy of

Management Learning and Education, 5(1).

Moore, Kyle (2010). The three past harmony of Adult Learning, Critical Thinking, and Decision Making. Journal of Education, Vol. 39(1). Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov.

Ghost Bear, Anne A (2012). Technology, Learning and Difference. Journal of Adult Education. Vol. 41(2). Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov.

Taylor, B. & Kroth, M. (2009). Andragogy’s transition into the future: Meta-analysis of Andragogy and is search for a measurable instrument. Journal of Adult Education. Vol 38(1). Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov.