Alissa Howe Literature Review

Andragogy: A History of Assumptions

Alissa Howe

Ball State University

EDAC 634 – The Adult as a Learner 

Abstract

This literature review is about Andragogy.  Andragogy is a term used to describe teaching adults.  This paper examines Andragogy and Knowles’ assumptions about adult learners.  This review will begin by discussing Knowles’ history in regards to andragogy.  Following that review, I will describe Knowles’ assumptions about adult learners; explore some of the differences between andragogy and pedagogy and then move on to a brief account of some of the criticisms of andragogy.  Finally, I will discuss implications for the use of Knowles’ assumptions in adult learning.

Keywords: Andragogy, Assumptions, Pedagogy, Knowles

Andragogy: A History of Assumptions

Introduction

Name	Commented On
Alissa Howe	Kayla Dusseaeu

            A German educator named Alexander Kapp first introduced the term andragogy in 1833.  Andragogy, referring to adult learning, was in contrast to pedagogy, referring to how children learn.  The term andragogy was not widely used in the United States until Malcolm Knowles, an adult educator, began expanding on it in the late 1950’s.  He collaborated with others to create assumptions about adult learners (Ozuah, 2016, p.83).  He first wrote four assumptions and later added two more.  The concept of andragogy was a new way of thinking about adult education.  Merriam (2001) states that, “until mid-twentieth century, adult educators relied on research in psychology and educational psychology for an understanding of adult learning” (p.4).  However, Knowles proposed that adult learning is different from how children learn.  Knowles presented the ideas of andragogy in contrast to the ideas of pedagogy.  There was also a push during the 1950’s, 1960’s and 1970’s to formalize adult education.  During that time, there were several individuals, other than Knowles, working to understand and explain how adults learn.  Among them were Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson, and Abraham Maslow.  Knowles’ most well known contribution to the field was in the form of his assumptions about adult learners. 

Themes

Assumptions

            The main theme for this literature review are Knowles six assumptions about adult learners.  Knowles first identified four assumptions about adult learners; and later referred to two additional assumptions. 

            The first assumption identified by Knowles is “As a person matures, his or her self-concept moves from that of a dependent personality toward one of a self-directing human being” (Merriam, 2007, p.84).  Adults are responsible for their own lives and decisions.  This, in turn, makes them capable of managing their own learning.  They are able to decide what they want to learn and can decide how they want to learn.  Adults also have some insight into what is motivating to them.  This assumption lends itself to the idea that adult students are able to be a part of the educational process; alongside their teachers.  Adult students and their teachers are free to communicate openly in this type of relationship and can work together to come up with course design, grading criteria, and other aspects of a course (Forrest III, 2006, p.117).  In considering this assumption, it is important to remember that not all adults will have the same level of independence in every environment.  Many factors can affect the level of independence including their past experiences, age, and motivation (Blondy, 2006, p.118).

            The second assumption written by Knowles is “An adult accumulates a growing reservoir of experience, which is a rich resource for learning” (Merriam, 2007, p.84).  Adults have more life experiences than children do and they can draw on those and apply them to their learning.  Ozuah (2005) states that “adult learning practitioners believe that prior experiences are the richest resources available to adult learners” (p.84).  These prior experiences can present some challenges as adults may be biased, or they may have learned incorrect information in the past.  Oftentimes, adults need to unlearn something before they can move forward in their learning.  Furthermore, an adult who uses their current knowledge and experiences in a way that works for them they may be resistant to learning more because what they already know is working for them.  As you can see, this second assumption about using an adult’s past experiences in shaping their learning has pros and cons.

            Knowles’ third assumption about adult learners is “The readiness of an adult to learn is closely related to their developmental tasks of his or her social role (Merriam, 2007, p.84).  This means that learning should be relevant to adult’s current lives and situations.  For instance, an adult with no interest in Entomology, and no intention of using information regarding Entomology, would have little readiness or willingness to learn about the topic as it has no application to their current situation.  On the other hand, a preschool teacher who is interested in providing developmentally appropriate activities for the 3 year olds in her care would be ready and willing to learn about developmentally appropriate activities for 3 year olds.   

            The fourth assumption about how adults learn is “There is a change in time perspective as people mature – from future application of knowledge to immediacy of application.  Thus, an adult is more problem centered than subject centered in learning” (Merriam, 2007, p.84).  This assumption is closely related to assumption three, discussed previously.  According to Forrest III (2006), “Adults learn because they need to address issues in their lives.  Thus, they enter the learning process from a performance-centered or problem-centered mind-set.  They seek information immediately applicable to their life tasks” (p.119).  It is important for teachers, when considering this assumption, to present information in a context that is familiar or useable to the adults who are learning.  For example, an adult who is currently a tax preparer will learn more through real life examples of tax preparation than by practicing adding and subtracting numbers with no relevance to taxes.  The tax preparers current need to problem solve through issues in their job will guide their motivation in learning more.  

            The fifth assumption, one of two that was added after the original four, is “The most potent motivations are internal rather than external” (Merriam, 2007, p.84).  Adults are motivated to learn by both internal and external factors.  According to Merriam (2013), adults are more motivated by internal factors as opposed to external factors.  Examples of external motivators would be grades or a monetary reward.  Some examples of internal motivators are personal satisfaction, enjoyment, and a feeling that there is value in what has been learned.  Internal motivation does not come from tangible things, but has to do with doing things because you want too, because you have a thirst for new knowledge. 

            Knowles’ sixth and final assumption is “Adults need to know why they need to learn something” (Merriam, 2007, p.84).  Adults who encounter new information that they do not see has a connection to their current life or situation are less likely to absorb and learn the information.  They would not expend the energy it takes to process the information without understanding why they should put the effort in to acquire the information.  Knowing why the information is needed and how they can apply it to their lives is important in all facets of adult learning.  In addition, adults benefit from being involved in the planning process for how they will learn.

Pedagogy vs. Andragogy

            Pedagogy, which means “the art and science of teaching children” (Merriam, 2013, p. 46) and andragogy, which means “the art and science of helping adults learn” (Merriam, 2007, p.84), have long been seen as contrasting ideas about learning.  However, Ozuah (2005) maintains that the educational situation determines whether pedagogy or andragogy assumptions are applicable.  For example, an adult who is learning about a topic they have no knowledge of may benefit from more of a pedagogical approach (p.84).

            Pedagogy, described by Forrest (2006), is more focused on what is being learned and what the teacher knows about it (p.113).  Andragogy, on the other hand, focuses on what the adult wants to learn and takes into consideration what they already know about the topic.  In pedagogical approaches, teachers make decisions about what will be learned.  In an andragogic approach, the learner makes decisions about what they want to learn based on what value it holds in their lives.  Andragogy relies on the assumption that adults bring a wealth of experience and knowledge to their learning while pedagogy assumes that children do not bring a wealth of knowledge to their learning.  In a pedagogic approach, a person is learning information that may be useful to them in the future while in an andragogic approach, a person is learning information that they can immediately apply to their lives.  While pedagogy and andragogy say very different things about the way children and adults learn, there is much to be learned and considered from each approach.

Criticisms

            While the andragogic approach is widely used by educators, there has been much criticism about Knowles’ assumptions and his initial claim that andragogy is a theory.  According to Merriam (2013), “Knowles ceased calling it a theory and instead called it “a model of assumptions about learning or a conceptual framework that serves as a basis for an emergent theory”” (p.57).  Research about Knowles assumptions shows varying results; though most agree that andragogy is a good descriptor of what adult learners are like in general (Merriam, 2013, p.57).

Implications

            Knowles’ assumptions provide a framework for adult educators to use in providing effective learning experiences. The first assumption that acknowledges adults being more self-directed would imply that an effective adult learning environment would allow the adult learners to have some control over how the information is presented.  It would be effective to have an environment of open communication and mutual respect between the educators and the learners.

            The Second assumption would require the educator to take into account past experiences that each adult will bring to the learning environment.  No adults have had the same experiences so it would be important that the environment be inclusive of all viewpoints, thoughts, and ideas.

            The third assumption would show itself in practice by the educator acknowledging that each adult will have their own level of readiness to learn based on their current life situations and needs.  The educator can increase the readiness to learn by offering experiential learning opportunities that display to the learner why the information being learned is relevant to their current life situation.

            The fourth assumption, regarding adults being problem-centered, would imply that the information being learned should be immediately relevant to a problem, job, or situation in their lives.  Educators can provide relevant information and experiences by getting to know the learners and planning accordingly.

            The fifth assumption, about internal motivation, may be tricky for educators to have control over.  Internal motivation is not grades or degrees or rewards, but an internal satisfaction.  Educators can increase a learner’s internal motivation by providing experiences and learning opportunities that are relevant to them, interesting to them, and satisfactory to them.  This can happen with open communication and relationship building between the educator and the learner.

            The sixth, and final assumption, is that adults need to know why they are learning something.  They may also benefit from knowing the risks of not learning the information.  Knowles, Holton, & Swanson (2011) state:           

The first task of the facilitator of learning is to help the learners become aware of the “need to know”.  At the very least, facilitators can make an intellectual case for the value of learning in improving the effectiveness of the learners’ performance or the quality of their lives. Even more potent tools for raising the level of awareness of the need to know are real or simulated experiences in which the learners discover for themselves the gaps between where they are now and where they want to be.  (p.63)

Reflection

Highlights

Malcolm Knowles’ work in andragogy has helped to professionalize adult education.  It has encouraged research on the topic and created an open dialogue about how adults learn best.  The six assumptions about adult learners create a framework for educators to use when considering how information will be presented and how educational opportunities will be planned.  While the assumptions are not a theory of adult education and have not been confirmed by research, they are a great guideline for planning adult learning experiences and remind the adult educator to take into account each person’s unique experiences and current learning needs and motivations.

Process

            While writing this literature – the first I have ever written, I found it helpful to split my time working on it into several days over the course of two weeks.  It was helpful for me to gather my resources and read them.  I then reflected on the resources and kept only the ones that I felt provided the most comprehensive information.  I then took time to highlight each resource in different colors for each section of the paper: Introduction, Themes, Implications, Reflection, and Table. Being organized in this way helped me to write the review seamlessly.

           

Table

Knowles’ Assumptions	Implications
Adults are self-directing	The learning environment should be conducive to open communication and partnership between the adult educator and the adult learner.  The learners benefit from having some say in how the information will be learned.
Adults have a wealth of experiences to draw from	Consider that adults bring their own experiences to the learning environment.  Consider that some things may need unlearned before they can be relearned correctly.
Adults enter the learning environment ready to learn	An adult’s level of readiness will depend on their current situation and role, including how relevant the new information is to them.
Adults are problem-oriented	Adults want to learn information that will help them solve current problems in their lives.
Internal motivation is greater than external motivation	Adults need to be acknowledged and respected in the learning environment.  Their contributions to the group should be acknowledged.  Grades are not the greatest motivator as they are an external motivator.
Adults need to know why they need to learn something	Provide learning opportunities that are relevant to an adult’s current situation.  Let adults know why the information they are learning is relevant; and provide information about the risks of not learning the information.

References

Blondy, L. C. (2006).  Evaluation and application of andragogic assumptions to the adult

 online learning environment.  Journal of interactive online learning, 6 (2), 116-130.

 Retrieved from http://www.ncolr.org

Forrest III, S. P., & Peterson, T. (2006).  It's Called Andragogy.  Academy Of Management

            Learning & Education, 5(1), 113-122.  doi:10.5465/AMLE.2006.20388390

Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2011). The adult learner: The definitive

classic in adult education and human resource development.  Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Merriam, S. B. (2001).  Andragogy and Self-Directed Learning: Pillars of Adult Learning

            Theory.  New Directions For Adult & Continuing Education, 2001(89), 3.

Merriam, S. B., & Bierema, L. L. (2013).  Adult learning : linking theory and practice.

            Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007).  Learning in Adulthood:

A Comprehensive Guide.  San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.

Ozuah, Philip O. (2005) "First, there was pedagogy and then came andragogy.”  Einstein journal of Biology and Medicine, (21): 83-87.