Emily Sheperd Literature Review

Andragogy Literature Review

Table 1. Student name and comments

Name	Commented On
Emily Sheperd	Christina Guy/Group 2

Introduction

            The study of how adults learn is a relatively new field only gaining researchers’ and educators’ attention beginning in the 1970s (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007). Prior to that point, educators utilized a general understanding of learning to shape their classrooms (Merriam et. al, 2007). Andragogy as a theoretical framework focused on how adults learn in combination with their life situation, and it was first introduced by Malcolm Knowles in 1968 in a research article in Europe (Merriam et. al, 2007). Knowles originally postulated four assumptions about learning and in a later publication added two more; he believed these assumptions to be necessary in designing adult learning programs (Merriam et al, 2007).

            Knowles’ andragogy theory became a turning point in adult education for educators looking to distinguish their field of education from other areas, especially the more traditional child-centered education systems (Merriam et. al, 2007). However, like all theories, Knowles’ theory was hotly debated. In most research utilizing Knowles’ work, researchers only focus on the original four assumptions Knowles’ formulated (Merriam et. al, 2007). Overtime, other models of adult learning have been proposed to explain how adults learn. Many of these models also look at how adults learn in relation to their current life situation, while adding other unique characteristics like McClusky’s Theory of Margin examining the ratio between energy used in life and energy needed to deal with life or Illeris’s Three Dimensions of Learning Model focused more specifically on how cognition, emotion, and society shape learning (Merriam et. al, 2007). While other theorists have proposed models to explain adult learning, Knowles’ andragogy remains one of the most common, and when researchers refer to and utilize the word “andragogy”, they are most typically referring to Knowles’ work (Merriam et. al, 2007). As such, this review will focus on Knowles’ andragogy.

General Themes

            Overtime, Knowles’ postulated six assumptions about adult learning. The original four are a self-directing self-concept, use of experience, a readiness to learn, and a performance-centered orientation to learning (Forrest and Peterson, 2006). The final two assumptions are the driving motivators for learning are internal and a need to understand the significance of a topic (Rachal, 2002). However, given that most research only focus on Knowles’ original four assumptions, this review will also only explore the concepts, support for, and critiques of the original four.

First Assumption: Self-Directing Self-Concept

            As a child learner, the individual is very dependent on an external source to provide the materials and tools necessary for the individual to successfully learn (Forrest and Peterson, 2006). As the learner grows, they become aware of their own learning style, what they need to be successful, and how to search out information allowing them to direct their own learning (Forrest and Peterson, 2006).

            Self-directing self-concept can take place in many ways. Adults are more than just students; they are often employees, parents, and members of numerous communities (Thompson and Deis, 2004). Researchers found in college classes that allow for maximum flexibility and student self-governance are the most effective programs in terms of comprehension and retention (Thompson and Deis, 2004). This research highlights that learners who are able to take charge of their learning and shape it within reason into their schedule and other responsibilities and needs are the most successful as well as most satisfied with their courses, which shows support for adult education programs focusing on the adults as self-directing multi-faceted learners (Thompson and Deis, 2004; Merriam et. al, 2007). Researchers in general agree that for adults to successfully learn, there is a need to be self-directing in their education (Rachal, 2002; Merriam et. al, 2007). Adults develop and become more than students as they age, so they choose what to learn and how to learn based off their understanding of themselves and their needs (Rachal, 2002).

Second Assumption: Use of Experience

            As a child learner, the individual has not experienced very much. They cannot easily draw on past experience to guide their current and future learning, so teachers often do not use previous experience to guide their learning process (Forrest and Peterson, 2006). On the flip side, adult learners have experienced and already learned lots of useful and practical information. This can be drawn upon to guide and improve their learning experience (Forrest and Peterson, 2006).

            Researchers comparing childhood and adult learning situations cited collaboration as the largest difference between the two groups (Thompson and Deis, 2004). Allowing students to collaborate, discuss, and share their own experiences relating to the topic allows for a deeper, more practical understanding of the topic (Thompson and Deis, 2004). This andragogilogical approach allows students to rely on themselves and classmates as an educational resource, and creates a more equal power balance between educator and student (Forrest and Peterson, 2006).

            Some of the major critiques researchers offer around this topic is at what point are learners able to offer useful experiences. Some cite early high school students who can draw on life experiences of observing bridges can instinctually understand why certain geometric shapes make for sturdier structures or even the ability to learn Algebra 2 builds off the understanding and experience of taking Algebra 1; others argue that traditional college students age 18-24 are technically adults yet do not have a reservoir of experiences to draw upon to add true value to the learning experience (Rachal, 2002). Future research should focus on splitting traditional college students from nontraditional students from other adult learning experience and examine the learners’ perceived value of their own and others’ experiences (Rachal, 2002).

Third Assumption: Readiness to Learn

            Few children are lining up in droves at the library yearning to learn the intricacies of the English language for the success of their future; for children to successfully learn, they need the driving force of a regiment, teacher and parent influence, and other external forces (Forrest and Peterson, 2006). On the flip side, adults recognize that in order to be successful in their particular career or move forward, they need the information; they come to the learning process with an internal desire and motivation to meet their needs (Forrest and Peterson, 2006).

            As mentioned, adult learners are more than just students; they are parents, community members, employees, and more (Merriam et. al, 2007). As their roles in life change, their obligations change. Adults are poised to learn to meet the needs of the obligations; they are ready to learn (Forrest and Peterson, 2006).

            Critiques of current research around this looks predominantly at whether or not the learning that is happening is voluntary; a major focus on this assumption of andragogy is that the learning is drive by an internal need (Thompson and Deis, 2004). However, some research citing this ready to learn as an important assumption of the framework have been based on participants who were paid to participate (Rachal, 2002). There is a need to examine the reason people attend educational events without the primary driver being the promise of payment for participating in the research (Rachal, 2002).

Fourth Assumption: Performance-Centered Orientation to Learning

            Due to the nature of the current K-12 education system as well as general philosophy regarding children’s need, children learn about state mandated topics and the learning is focused around certain subjects that teachers decide (Forrest and Peterson, 2006). While post-secondary education may have requirements such as basic algebra or reading comprehension, the majority of topics adults learn are focused on material they will use quickly and relate to problems they need to be able to solve (Forrest and Peterson, 2006).

            Research shows adults are more satisfied with courses and better retain information when the course is problem and theory-to-practice focused (Thompson and Deis, 2004). Researchers in general are in consensus that practical application of knowledge is the most relevant and most interesting to adult learners (Rachal, 2002; Thomspon and Deis, 2004).

Summary of Themes and Thoughts

            The four leading assumptions of Knowles’ andragogy are learning should be self-directed, include and expand off of the learner’s previous experience, adults learn so they can be ready for different opportunities, and the learning should be practical and focused on solving immediate problems (Merriam et. al, 2007). While more research is needed and educators do not hold a total consensus that this is the perfect framework for understanding adult learners, this is the primary theory that adult educators use (Murray, 2014). In addition, educators and researchers do point out that differences in individual students and broader cultures will make it difficult if not impossible to understand all adult learning through one theory, which is why many utilize Knowles’ andragogy because it speaks to a majority of adult learners (Rachal, 2002; Thompson and Deis, 2004).

Implications

            By utilizing an andragogy-based approach in creating courses and program for adult learners, an educator is purposefully creating an environment for adults to succeed in their learning. To create cohesion, throughout this section the implications for designing an andragogy-focused grant writing program will be examined.

First Assumption: Self-Directing Self-Concept

Typically, a course or workshop begins with certain objectives. For a grant-writing program, the simple objectives would be understanding the parts of a grant, knowing where to gather data for the grant, and understanding how to write a grant to meet the requirements of the grant rubric. Murray (2014) suggests utilizing purposeful learner-educator conversations at the beginning as well as throughout the program to allow learners to vocalize their needs and ensure the course is relevant to their goals. Through these conversations, the learner can better understand the objectives and shape them into competencies they can grow into.  By doing this, the educator allows for better self-direction of the students, or Knowles’ first assumption.

Second Assumption: Use of Experience

As previously mentioned, Thompson and Deis (2004) shared collaboration as the biggest difference between child and adult classrooms. Collaboration and discussions where participants are able to draw on past experiences allow adult learners to more actively participate in their learning (Dean and Fornaciari, 2014). In a grant-writing course, some of the students may have no grant-writing experience and others may have written numerous grants before; students sharing those experiences allows for more resources for all of the students and ideas the educator may not have considered. This highlights the importance of adult learner’s experience.

Third Assumption: Readiness to Learn

Looking at Knowles’ third assumptions, the individuals who are taking this course are most likely doing so to meet the needs for a job they have or a job they want. As such, the objectives and assignments should allow students to explore grants that relate to their profession (nonprofit, foundation, state/federal, etc.). Thompson and Deis (2004) share from their research that learners who are able to complete projects that meet both the objectives of the course and the current and future needs of their job find more value in the course and better retain the lesson. By beginning with objectives that students can build into competencies and allowing the students to meet the competencies through their projects, students are able to self-direct their learning and meet the internal needs and responsibilities that brought them to the course.

Fourth Assumption: Performance-Centered Orientation to Learning

Finally, project-based learning allows the learners to see the immediate implication and test their understanding (Forrest and Peterson, 2006). In a longer course, individuals can write grants that relate to their job goals. While in a one-day workshop time may not allow for the individual to write a full grant, they can examine other grants to find faults and success. This experiential learning shows immediate application which falls in line with Knowles’ fourth assumption.

Reflection

Highlights

            While it seems very obvious, the most important takeaway for adult educators is to remember they are teaching adults. It is simple to fall into a pedagogical approach; it takes purposeful intentions to create a program that focuses on the unique needs of adults. The biggest takeaway for me is to remember to utilize my students’ experiences; I am not the smartest person in the room even if I am the educator, and it is important to value the experiences of my students.

Process

            In completing this paper, I used my typical approach for writing an individual paper. I read the starting source, in this case our book, to get a big picture idea. I pulled out keywords from that source, searched for relevant articles, read over abstracts and pulled out about 8 possible sources. Then I read through the paper, highlighted the information I thought would be important to include in the paper, categorized that information, and finally wrote the paper following the proposed outline from the professor. As someone who likes a very linear approach, this process works well for me.

Table 2. Summary of the literature review

	The main themes/ideas in the literature: Knowles’ four assumptions	Application of the main ideas in practice
Assumption 1: Self-directing self-concept	Adults are aware of their current situation, how they learn, and what they need to be successful.	Harness purposeful educator-learner conversations so as to be aware of the needs of the learner and shape the resources to meet those needs.
Assumption 2: Use of experience	Learners have usable experience and knowledge that can help them better understand the subject. Their experience can also add value to the class and help other students better understand the subject.	Encourage discussion and collaboration between students that asks them to discuss how past experiences relate to the topic and can be used in the future.
Assumption 3: Readiness to learn	Adults are internally motivated to learn when the education better prepares them for certain roles and responsibilities.	Create projects that can be completed in numerous ways so students can shape the project to relate to the roles and responsibilities they are preparing for.
Assumption 4: Performance-centered orientation to learning	Learning should be practical and focused on solving problems	Utilize project-based learning that allows the learner to actively use the information and see the practicality of the lessons.

References

Dean, K. L. and Fornaciari, C. J. (2014). The 21^st-century syllabus: Tips for putting andragogy into practice. Journal of Management Education, (38)5, 724-732. doi: 10.1177/1052562913504764

Forrest, S. P. and Peterson, T. O. (2006). It’s called andragogy. Academy of Managagement Learning & Education, (5)1, 113-122. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/40212539?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., and Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3^rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Murray, D. S. (2014). Navigating toward andragogy: Coordination and management of student-professor conversations. Western Journal of Communication, (78)3, 310-336. doi: 10.1080/10570314.2013.866687

Rachal, J. R. (2002). Andragogy’s detectives: A critique of the present and a proposal for the future. Adult Education Quarterly, (52)3, 210-227. Retrieved from http://www.uwyo.edu/aded5050/5050unit10/andragog.pdf

Thompson, M. A. and Deis, M. H. (2004). Andragogy for adult learners in higher education. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, (8)3, 77-89. Retrieved from http://bsu.summon.serialssolutions.com.proxy.bsu.edu/#!/search?bookMark=ePnHCXMwTV3LCsIwECyerOIvSD7AQNI2jx5FFD_Ae1ndNHqpYOrBv3c3VvQSCAy5JNnMwmRmUayAtdnDmP9w4Yz9SivPSio6hqWmJ13auvLzqVwa6s1MWSjW70G8x5cgsiay-YTIwQnEgsRtENcsexDhK3tYFqfD_rQ7yikzQEaralmBq4MF3yC7ipyxbmnm0KAzLXupe6LboDFo6t1Na_rGhd7RRUOLSvXA5oHrz7Jcnzve5PEBl05bNlojakSAzR9gSoqkIXEvnSI8U-q2P_gb5a1Now